SVIATOSLAV THE BRAVE OF KIEV

This is an excerpt from my post: KIEVAN RUS: PART 1 – NORTHERN ENIGMA OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

In the early medieval period of Russia’s history, there was a small dominion known as ‘Kievan Rus’. This realm was inhabited by Norsemen, Finns, Balts and especially Slavs. The greatly feared and loved princess Saint Olga had a son named Sviatoslav who was mentored by a famed Varangian warlord named Sveneld.

^ The Kievan Rus under Prince Sviatoslav’s reign (red), sphere of influence in 972 (orange).

Sviatoslav dressed and styled himself differently than previous rulers; “he shaved his head completely, except for a lock of hair that hung down on one side, as a mark of his nobility of his ancestry” and “on one ear was fastened a gold earring, adorned with two pearls with a red gemstone between them”. Similar hairstyles were sported by the Turkish Bulgarians, Magyars and Khazars. Unlike those before him, he acted out a form of chivalry in which he would send envoys before him warning of his intentions (“I march on you”) so they could meet in open battle rather than resorting to ambushes and guerrilla warfare. Also, he took on a military approach similar to that of the steppe nomads; using silent, rapid and deep infiltration of enemy territories.

^ Osprey – ‘Men-at-Arms’ series, issue. 333 – Armies of Medieval Russia 750-1250 by David Nicole and Angus McBride (Illustrator). B1: Sviatoslav of Kiev, 971 AD.

DOWNFALL OF THE GRAND KHAZAR KHAGANATE

The Khazars (Jewish Turks) and the Byzantines had a relatively positive relationship for most of their history but all this changed under the Byzantine king, Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944 CE), who was persecuting Jews. In response to this Joseph, khagan of the Khazars (Jewish Turks), began “doing away with many Christians” (Schechter Letter). Romanos I Lekapenos is believed to have incited the Rus into warring with the Khazars; the Rus already held an uneasy relationship with the Khazars since they held sway over the Volga River with its rich access to the Caspian Sea and the treasures of the Muslim world while some speculate that the Rus were tributaries of the Khazar Khaganate at this time.

In the past (944 CE) the Khazars had proven how deceitful they could be when they granted the Rus safe passage through their land in exchange for half of the spoils but decided to instead attack and rob the Rus force as it was returning from their successful raid of the Caspian Sea regions. Close ties with the Byzantine Empire is often seen as a strong excuse behind the Rus war against the Khazars as the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969 CE) convinced Sviatoslav into assisting him in a war against Bulgaria years later.

^ Sviatoslav’s Council of War by Boris Chorikov.

Despite this entire backdrop, one thing that is believed by scholars is that the expansions made by Sviatoslav against the Khazar Khaganate and the Empire of Bulgaria were attempts to rid the Kievan realm of the limitations and handicaps imposed onto them by these two nations. If they could conquer or subdue the Khazars to their east and south then they would attain safe access and control of the trade routes to the Black Sea and the rich Byzantine Empire as well as Caspian Sea and the prosperous Muslim world. 

By defeating the Bulgarian Empire, the Kievan realm would be in close proximity to the Byzantines and access to the Danube River. The Danube River the second longest river in Europe which happens to cut through the greater part of Europe in a horizontal fashion – attaining this would allow them to trade with other great empires that were previously out of reach.

^ Khazaria during the reign of Joseph, c. 950 CE.

With his eye set eastward, Sviatoslav focused mostly on martial affairs, he began by expanding eastward into the regions around the Volga river. Sviatoslav persuaded the Eastern Slavic tribes allied to the Khazars to aid him instead, and armed himself with Pecheneg (Turkish) and Oghuz (Turkish) mercenary cavalrymen. Twenty-one year old Sviatoslav subjugated the Viatichi (Slavs), the Volga Bulgars (Turkish) and the Burtas (Finno-Ugric). 

Sviatoslav then made war against the Khazar Khaganate (Jewish Turks), and several Eastern Slavs; ravaging the fortress of Sarkel, he devastated the Khazars in an open battle before sacking and ravaging their capital of Atil (or Itil) and their coastal port city by the Caspian Sea known as Samander; on his march back he subjugated the Ossetians (descendants of the Sarmatian Alans).

In one fell swoop Sviatoslav had taken down the greatest threat in their immediate area and with the Khazars weakened the Rus gained control over the Volga River and access into the Caspian Sea. Rus trade strengthened as we see an influx of silver coins (famed Baghdad silver) from the Islamic world which they attained in exchange of furs, wax and, most importantly, slaves of Slavic descent. Slavic slaves or Saqaliba, in the Muslim world served as bodyguards, mercenaries, artisans, craftsmen, servants, concubines and eunuchs. Sviatoslav also moved against peoples of the northern Caucasus region, therefore also attaining the trade route that led over the Caucasus Mountains. The realms immediately south of the Caucasus mountains exported textiles, jewelry, armors, leathers, furs, wool, cotton, horses, cattle, honey, wine, raisins, spices, salt, timber, grain and silk.

^ Osprey – ‘Elite’ series, issue 30 – Attila and the Nomad Hordes by David Nicolle and Angus McBride (Illustrator). H2: Khazar cavalryman, 9th-10th centuries – “Full mail hauberks of a type that would become common in 12th century Europe were used by Khazars as well as Byzantines and western Muslim troops. Here a heavily armoured cavalryman also has a helmet forged from a single piece of iron with a mail coif or more probably aventail plus splinted arm and leg defenses similar to those found in early medieval Scandinavia. Only his slightly curved sabre puts him in a Turkish steppe tradition.”

RUS INVASION OF THE FIRST BULGARIAN EMPIRE

Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969 CE) was in conflict with the First Bulgarian Empire but he, like many of the Byzantine Emperors before him, had most of his forces in the Middle East. Emperor Nikephoros II was able to do little more than march his forces northward toward Bulgaria where he took many strongholds along the way. Emperor Nikephoros II’s last gambit was to send a messenger named Kalokyras (Chief Magistrate of Cherson in Crimea) to offer to pay Sviatoslav 1,500 lbs. of gold to in exchange for his help against the Bulgarians.

^ Territory of the First Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century CE.

Kalokyras assisted him by leading a large army of Greek auxiliaries while Sviatoslav assembled a massive one accompanied by Turkish steppe nomads (Khazars and Pechenegs). Sviatolsav departed towards the northern territories of Bulgaria where they, upon coming ashore, were met by a Bulgarian force. The Rus raised their swords and shields before launching a raucous and fierce charge towards and cutting through the outnumbered (Battle of Silistra, spring 968 CE) and then took their fortress. Eighty fortresses fell to Sviatoslav, as did the cities of Dobrudja, the capital city of Preslav (modern Veliki “Great” Preslav) and the great trade city of Pereiaslaviets (Little Preslav) which controlled the Danube delta. While occupying Bulgaria, the Pecheneg (Turkish) nomads decided to attack the Rus at their rear, as they did so they also laid siege to the Rus capital of Kiev.

^ Osprey - 'Men-at-Arms’ series, issue 491 - Armies of the Volga Bulgars and Khanate of Kazan 9th-16th Centuries by Viacheslav Shpakovsky & David Nicolle, Illustrated by Gerry and Sam Embleton. Plate A: Bulgars & Subjects, 9th–10th centuries.

^ Sviatoslav invading Bulgaria, Manasses Chronicle.

Sviatoslav rushed back to Kiev and defeated the Pechenegs besieging Kiev, forcing them back to the steppes. Within Kiev was Sviatoslav’s mother, Olga, elderly by now and on her deathbed; Sviatoslav stayed beside her until her death.

In his absence the Bulgarian city of Pereiaslaviets rebelled against him, the above quote was said by Sviatoslav before leaving. Sviatoslav returned to Bulgaria and retook the city, moving the capital from Kiev to Pereiaslaviets. Like the Vikings  and other migrating ‘barbarians’ that came before them, the Rus brought women along with them, signifying there interest was not solely raiding and warfare but also colonization and settling.

To quell ideas of rebellion in Bulgaria Sviatoslav sent them a message by having about twenty thousand Bulgarian captives impaled in the city of Philippopolis and he allowed Boris II of Bulgaria to remain in Prislav as a puppet king. The Rus revitalized trade along the Danube River as there was an evident economic trade boom at this time. The Byzantines only wished for the Rus to weaken Bulgaria but had instead replaced one neighboring threat with another. They had invited a wolf to their doorstep as Rus had neared Constantinople. As the Rus moved ever closer, the Byzantines attempted to sway them into peace.

Sviatoslav doubled down as he demanded to not only receive the promised payment, but also added that in return for the captured cities and persons that they had to pay a greater amount and “if the Romans were not willing to pay, then they should quickly withdraw from Europe, which did not belong to them, and move to Asia.” The Romans responded with threats so Sviatoslav retorted:

^ Svyatoslav’s Warriors sacrificing prisoners to the Pagan gods during the Siege of Dorostolon by Henryk Siemiradzki.

The Byzantine Emperor fortified his defenses and gathered his men, one gambit held by the Byzantines were the heavily armored cavalry units known as cataphracts referred to by him as “immortals”. With the well trained Byzantine force a swift advance was lead against the city of Preslav while a fleet of Greek dromone warships armed with Greek Fire blocked any chance of a Rus naval retreat via the Danube River which led to the Black Sea. The Byzantines besieged the Rus held city of Dorostolon; holding out, the inhabitants began starving, losing morale, deserting and were suffering from casualties sustained from indecisive skirmishes outside the city walls. Sviatoslav wished to have one last battle in which “they would either win, having fought well and triumphed over the enemy, or lose, having preferred a noble and happy death to a life of shame and disgrace”.

In the end the Rus and Sviatoslav were corned and pressured into ending this conflict with a truce. Sviatoslav’s terms was for the Byzantines to grant them with provisions, the Rus would keep their spoils of war and for the Byzantines to allow them safe passage back home (safe from the Pecheneg threat). In exchange the Rus would become allies, commence trade relations with one another and agree to surrender the eastern Crimea (peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea) and Bulgaria.

^ Svyatoslav Meeting with Emperor John i Tzmiskes by Klavdy Lebedev.

After peace had been agreed upon, the two great rulers met and this is where we received some of the physical descriptions of Sviatoslav which previously mentioned. Sviatoslav spoke of how he wished for a safe return home free from threat of attacks from the Pechenegs (Turkish steppe nomads). Since the war didn’t end with the complete destruction of Rus forces and as they kept the spoils of war, Sviatoslav would once again be able to war against the Byzantines if he so wished. The Byzantine emperor was rumored to have secretly asked the Pechenegs to destroy the returning Rus army and rob them of their spoils of war; others claim the Bulgarians were the ones who conspired with the Pechenegs.

While attempting to sail up the Dnieper River rapids he and his men were intercepted by the Pechenegs twice, the second time Sviatoslav was killed and his skull was turned into a gold-plated drinking cup. Sveneld, the famed Caspian raider, survived the skirmish and was able to relate the news back to Kiev, with this Kievan Rus had lost the Crimea, the Danube River trade route and the Bulgarian lands they had conquered.

With this grave disaster Kievan Rus had lost the Crimea, the Danube River trade route and the Bulgarian lands they had just recently conquered. Sviatoslav’s grand realm of Kievan Rus would now be held by his three sons who would fight for sole rule, a conflict which would mark the beginning of an era plagued by civil wars, wars of succession and familicide. These troubles sent Kievan Rus into a down spiral as it fractured and gave birth to numerous principalities, most of which were rivalrous. Despite these misfortunes the Rusians reached their peak under leaders like Vladimir the Great (who unified the Rus and made Greek Orthodox Christianity their official religion) and Yaroslav the Wise (while Europe was in the dark age, he made Kievan Rus a beacon of knowledge, literacy, trade and faith).

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